第十七章

Chapter 17 Food Webs
Figure	17.1	A marine food web in action: feeding baleen whales and birds.
Figure	17.2	The Antarctic pelagic food web.
Figure	17.3	Food web representing the feeding relations of the 10 most common fish species at Caño Volcán, Venezuela, (a) with all feeding relationships represented and (b) with weak feeding relationships excluded (data from Winemiller 1990).
Figure	17.4	The blue tit, Parus caeruleus, is a Eurasian relative of the chickadees of North America that, like chickadees, gleans insects from vegetation.
Figure	17.5	Food web associated with Phragmites australis (data from Tscharntke 1992).
Figure	17.6	Roots of the keystone species hypothesis: does a higher proportion of predators in diverse communities indicate that predators contribute to higher species diversity?
Figure	17.7	The effect of removing a top predator from two intertidal food webs (data from Paine 1966, 1971).
Figure	17.8	Effect of Littorina littorea on algal communities in tide pools (data from Lubchenko 1978).
Figure	17.9	Effect of Littorina littorea on algal species richness in tide pools and emergent habitats (data from Lubchenko 1978).
Figure	17.10	Seasonal changes in biomass and growth form of benthic algae in the Eel River, California: (a) in early summer, June 1989; (b) in late summer, August 1989.
Figure	17.11	Food web associated with algal turf during the summer in the Eel River, California.
Figure	17.12	The influence of juvenile steelhead and California roach on benthic algal biomass in the Eel River (data from Power 1990).
Figure	17.13	Effect of juvenile steelhead and roach on numbers of insects and young (fry) roach and sticklebacks (data from Power 1990) .
Figure	17.14	What is a keystone species (data from Power et al. 1996)?
Figure	17.15	Influence of an exotic predator, Nile perch, on the food web of Lake Victoria (data from Ligtvoet and Witte 1991).
Figure	17.16	Results of experimental and natural removals or additions of cleaner wrasses (data from Bshary 2003).
Figure	17.17	The Argentine ant, Linepithema humile, has invaded and disrupted ant communities in many geographic regions.
Figure	17.18	A comparison of recruitment of seedlings following fire in areas invaded by Argentine ants and areas not invaded shows the effects of the displacement of native seed-dispersing ants by Argentine ants (data from Christian 2001).
Figure	17.19	Highly selective hunting by Amazonian natives (data from Redford 1992).
Figure	17.20	Large predators such as this jaguar may act as keystone species in tropical forests.
Figure	17.21	Effect of Solenopsis geminata on the arthropod populations on corn (data from Risch and Carroll 1982).
Figure	17.22	While pests in this North American orange orchard are controlled mainly by chemical insecticides, weaver ants have been used to control insect pests of orange orchards in China for over 17 centuries.